Media-imperialism Versus cultural identity

If we ask question that do the mass media produce direct, immediate and powerful influences on the audiences, then a simple yes or no answer is not possible. Sometimes the media seem powerful and sometimes not. We can see that an international 'media culture' has come to stay in which certain languages, cultures and types of story have come to find wide influences in all over the world. The mass media play a crucial role in almost all aspects of daily life in these days. The sociological significance of media extends beyond the content of media messages. Their influence is not limited to what we know. People learn and internalize some values, beliefs and norms presented in the media products. Media also affect how we learn about our world and interact with one another. They provide a diversion, a source of conflict, or a unifying force. Such impact is almost obvious when we look at the ways in which the mass media mediate our relationships.

In contemporary society, it is media that most often act as the bridge between people of different origins. The media can serve as an entertainer, informer, and also as a way to transmit values or norms. The relationship between society and the media is more complex than a simple 'free flow of information' slogan might suggest. The process of 'mass communication' is not synonymous with the 'mass media', the organized technologies that make mass communication possible. The 'mass communication' remains as an abstract concept while 'mass media' has acquired a status of reality. Globalization in the field of media is not just about the technological innovations used to communicate over long distances. In addition, and perhaps more important, it also refers to the exchange and intermingling of cultures from different parts of the world. In reality, this process is quite unidirectional. Some scholars claim that the export of American and Western popular culture is latter-day imperialism.




Though there are likely to be large differences, for instance, between media those adopt or are given a significant social, cultural or political task and those that are primarily concerned with making profits. But, both types of mass media have common characteristic in the sense that they contribute in the cultural intrusion. It is a fact that most of the media have a vested interest in the Capitalist system and are inclined to give support to its most obvious defenders. The so-called Third world countries are pawns of the western-based global media and the media are like the 19th -century European colonial powers. Some people argue that Rock music encouraged youngsters to use drugs or engage in sexual behavior.

The communication flow is one way from the powerful nations to the weak ones. The result is that Western values are imposed in an impossible-to-resist way. Scholar Herbert Schiller's view is that the Western-controlled international mass media preempt native culture, a situation he sees as robbery, just like earlier colonial tapping of natural resources to enrich the home countries. 'Influence on people' is not only the final stage in the process of mass communication but also the bottom line of public concern. It is for this reason that people are worried about the effect of western mass media influence.

Communication and culture are so closely bound together that virtually all communication engaged in by humans is culturally linked. In respect of culture, according to Dennis McQuail, the mass media constitute a primary source of definitions and images of social reality and the most ubiquitous expression of shared identity. Also, they are the largest focus of leisure time interest, providing the shared 'cultural environment' for most people and more so than any other single institution. The most fundamental questions of society- those concerning the distribution and exercise of power, the management of problems and the process of integration and change- all turn on the communication. So the one way flow of communication is dangerous. It must be changed as soon as possible. Since nothing has influenced the lives of modern human society as the mass media have, we should be much more serious about it.



The consequence of media globalization should be understood properly. We should not hesitate to accept the good aspects of media influence. We know that the media often play a significant role in the adoption of new technologies and the way they are used. Media play role in diffusion of innovations. The media also change our images and interpretations. They can also change our feelings about social issue and help in decision-making. It may tell the truth so that people would have the information that they need to be sovereign. Also, there is chance of manipulation and media-imperialism. But cultural invasion in the name of globalization and modernization cannot be acceptable. Promoting conditions for the preservation of the cultural identity of every society is necessary to enable it to enjoy a harmonious inter-relationship. There should be established national cultural policies, which should foster cultural identity and creativity, and involve the media in these tasks. Such policies should also contain guidelines for safeguarding national cultural development while promoting knowledge of other cultures.

- Nirmala Mani Adhikary

Journalist: The Social Scientist

Sciences are broadly divided in to natural (or physical) sciences and social sciences. Social sciences include various disciplines dealing with human life. They consist of Anthropology, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Behavior Science, Commerce, Demography, Law, Linguistics, Management, Political Science, Psychology, Public Administration, Sociology, and Social work. Though these sciences are treated as separate branches of knowledge for the purpose of study, they are interdependent studies of the different aspects of same object- human being. By applying scientific method of study, the social sciences have grown and advanced man's knowledge of himself. Journalism is a discipline under social science.
Social sciences are not exact science like physical sciences, as they, unlike the latter, deal with human beings. Human nature and man's environment are so complex that it is more difficult to comprehend and predict human behavior than the physical phenomena. Hence, we can say, by terming Journalism social science we are referring to scientific attitude. A scientific attitude is many things in many situations. It requires consistent thinking, stern pursuit of accurate data (or fact), stubborn determination to analyze one's own system of thinking and to take nothing for granted. Evidence, tests, proof are the pillars of a stern court of "evidential confrontation". We have to think of science as an activity, a means of finding things out in which personal and vested interests avoided. It is based on observable evidence, which has been carefully recorded (or, reported in case of journalism) and presented to make it as close to the actual observation as possible. This attention to recording and presenting the observations carefully and precisely is part of the effort to make the studies scientific. The purpose of each study or reporting is to seek to know something better, more deeply, and more clearly by applying rational, logical rules of analysis to the empirical evidence gathered through observation.
J. Arthur Thomson, in his book Introduction to Science, says, "What makes a science is not, of course, the nature of things with which it is concerned, but the method by which it deals with these things." Similarly, Karl Pearson (The Grammar of Science) says, "The man who classifies facts of any kind, who sees their mutual relations and describes their sequences is applying the scientific method and is a man of science.... It is not the facts themselves which make science, but the method by which they are dealt with." Thus a journalist could be a scientist by having scientific method and scientific attitude. According to O.R. Krishnaswami, the scientific method is based on certain "articles of faith"; these are: reliance on empirical evidence, use of relevant concepts, commitment to objectivity, ethical neutrality, generalization, verifiability, logical reasoning process. Objectivity is the sine qua non of the scientific method. Since journalism is a social science discipline, strict objectivity is next to impossibility, it is possible to attain a reasonable level of objectivity.
The journalists are social scientists, not natural scientists. As Karl Pearson states (in the book "The Grammar of Science"), every group of social phenomena, every phase of social life, every stage of past and present development is material for the social scientist. This is true in case of journalists too. The scientific attitude helps journalist to deal scientifically with all these materials. This approach leads a journalist to become a researcher rather than a mere collector of information about happenings.
It is important to learn to present the news clearly, accurately, concisely, and interestingly and to know how to interpret it when necessary. Journalism is a restless profession, as changeable as the news in which deals. With the media becoming complex and also specialized, the work environment of a journalist has become even competitive. The working pattern of these days' journalists differs in various aspects as compared to journalists of few years ago. The need of journalists to be a researcher is one of such differences.
Experts, such as Wimmer and Dominick, opine that print media reporters and social scientists now have more in common with each other, because of two recent trends. The first trend is precision journalism, a technique of inquiry in which social science research methods are used to gather the news. Essentially, precision journalism is the use of social science methods and information by journalists; it takes two forms. In active precision journalism, reporters conduct surveys or other research. In reactive precision journalism, they use reports already assembled by government agencies, universities, and private forms. Precision journalists attempt to make journalism more scientific. They assess the views of citizens through systematic sampling rather than through random interviews. Unlike the standard use of polls, precision journalism presents statistical information within the context of traditional news stories. Tables, graphs, and statistics are used along with interviews that serve as examples. Thus, experts say, precision journalism can provide a fuller and more exact view of the community. To use this technique, journalists must be trained in social science methods such as survey research, experimental design, questionnaire, sampling, data presentation, and content analysis, etc. They need to understand how to apply statistical tests or direct some one else to do so. DeFleur and Dennis rightly say that precision journalism pushes the whole field of reporting toward science. The second trend is known as database journalism. This form of reporting is said to rely upon computer-assisted analysis of existing information files.
It is not that research is useful in only precision journalism and database journalism. These are the fields that have been using techniques of social science research while reporting. Research has greater scope than that. In fact, research is very useful in every piece of news reporting. It guides journalists to search facts in scientific way. Since journalism is the profession which seeks revealing truth and the research is pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and experiment, the scope of research in the filed of journalism is obvious.
Research has been defined as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. Some view it as an art of scientific investigation. This clearly helps in maintaining truth, objectivity, accuracy and fairness. Over the years, news media practitioners, as well as their critics have expressed considerable concern about objectivity, and accuracy, reality, truth, fairness in news stories. Scholars opine that the media are not merely a conduit; they have the responsibility to assess the validity or truth of the information they disseminate. The journalists need to be fair as well as truthful, accurate as well as objective. For this, research, undoubtedly, is the only tool. This clearly emphasizes the need of a journalist to be a researcher.
By adopting techniques of social science research, the journalist adopts scientific attitude as well as practice, which help in attaining the principal goal of journalism -that is, finding truth and reporting it to general people.

Communication research in Nepal

– Nirmala Mani Adhikary

In case of Nepal, Adhikary's "Hindu Awadharanama Sanchar Prakriya" is the first significant research regarding studying communication from Hindu perspective. Written in Nepali, it presented a unique communication model based on the Sadharanikaran theory. It was first ever attempt from Bharatavarsha to propose a model of communication in diagrammatic form. And, so far, the Sadharanikaran model is the only model of communication in diagrammatic form proposed from the Hindu perspective.
"Prakriya" sought to study both of the verbal and non-verbal forms of communication from Hindu point of view. The research draws on Bharata Muni's Natyashastra for studying non-verbal communication and Bhartrihari's Vakyapadiya for studying verbal communication. Moreover, Natyashastra has been drawn for the concepts of Rasaswadana and Sadharanikaran.

The Mimamsa philosophy (one of the six mainstream or orthodox schools of Vedic philosophy) has been accepted as the guiding philosophy. Based on the Mimamsa viewpoint, it has been argued that communication in Hindu concept is not merely for the purpose of sending and receiving message. In worldly matters, the process is ideally for achieving mutual understanding and becoming Sahridaya. But it does not limit its goal up to that achievement. The goal of communication process covers worldly as well as spiritual matters and it serves as a means for attaining all of the four highest goals of human life (purushartha chatustaya) as envisioned in Hinduism: Artha, Kama, Dharma and Moksha.

Adhikary "Siddhanta" and Adhikary "Sancharko" both are abridged versions of "Prakriya" and "Sancharko" is more comprehensive than "Siddhanta." Adhikary "Gaira-Shabdik" also has been taken from the same source. It is entirely concerned with the non-verbal communication in Hindu concept. All of these works are in Nepali.
Written in English, Adhikary "Comparative" seeks to assess and analyze the fundamental differences between Aristotle's and the Sadharanikaran models of communication. The concept of communication process from Aristotelian and Sadharanikaran perspectives has been studied in terms of structure and scope of two models, human relationships in the process and the goal of communication. It has been established that these two models differ in all of the four aspects:
Aristotle's model has unrealistic linear approach due to which number of biases created and advancement of the communication discipline stained. But the Sadharanikaran model is non-linear and hence free from the limitations of Aristotle's model.

The scope of the Sadharanikaran model is too broad as compared to Aristotle's model. The latter is considered applicable to public speaking merely. But the former seems applicable for the study of all levels of communication from intrapersonal to interpersonal to mass. Its scope ranges even from the human communication to the attainment of Moksha. Thus it is in consonance with the Hindu worldview.
In Aristotle's model, the receiver is vulnerable to dominance and manipulation by the sender as he/she is passive. In the Sadharanikaran model, though the relationship is hierarchical the sender and the receiver are Sahridayas and thus are capable of experiencing satisfaction and joy. This model offers explanation of how successful communication is possible in Hindu society where complex hierarchies of castes, languages, cultures and religious practices are prevalent.
Finally, these two models differ vastly while setting the goal of communication. Aristotle's model has a highly specific and narrower goal of influencing or persuading the receiver as intended by the sender. The Sadharanikaran model, on the other hand, aims mutual understanding and becoming Sahridaya. Its goal covers worldly as well as spiritual achievements by encompassing all of Artha, Kama, Dharma and Moksha.


Finally, it has been argued that Aristotle's model cannot represent and describe the communication theory and practice of countries like Nepal and India. Rather, a comparative study of different concepts of communication is a must for the improved understanding of the process and the advancement of the discipline.


WORKS CITED:

Adhikary, Nirmala Mani. "Aristotle's and the Sadharanikaran Models of Communication: A Comparative Study." An Independent Study Presented to the Graduate School of Pokhara University in the Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Philosophy. September 2007.
---. "Communication in Nepali Perspective." Space Time Today 13 January 2003.
---. "Hindu Awadharanama Sanchar Prakriya." Diss. Purvanchal U, 2003 (2060 B.S.).
---. "Hindu Awadharanma Gaira-Shabdik Sanchar." Sanchar Shodha Ra Media Paryavekshan. Kathmandu: Prashanti, 2007 (2063 B.S.). 139-180.
---. "Hindu-Sanchar Siddhanta: Ek Adhyayan." Baha Journal 2004 (Phagun 2061 B.S.). 25-43.
---. "Sancharko Hindu Awadharanatmak Adhyayan." Sanchar Shodha Ra Media Paryavekshan. Kathmandu: Prashanti, 2007 (2063 B.S.). 93-138.

Mimamsa-Philosophy and Mass Media Ethics

By: Nirmala Mani Adhikary


This article is continuation of my previous article "Exploring New Paradigm in Mass Media Ethics" (MBM Anthology of Media Studies 2007), where I argue that "being rich in philosophy and culture, Nepal has her strength to explore new paradigm" on mass media ethics (59). There I have attempted to draw attention of media academia, educators, students and professionals that we should not take media ethics merely as prescribed by and in accordance with the Western perspectives but rather should, at least theoretically in the beginning, explore native, specifically Hindu, perspectives on media ethics. After brief discussions on mass media ethics firstly and later Hindu point of view on it, I have proposed some aspects of philosophies in relation to media ethics for discussion. Moving further, here I attempt to sketch an outline of mass media ethics from Mimamsa-philosophical perspective.

Of course, such endeavor is expected in the context of Vedanta, Samkhya, Nyaya, Vaisheshika and Yoga philosophies too. Nepal represents old civilization with a known history of thousand of years and having a distinct cultural identity of its own. In this light, paying little attention to explore Hindu point of view on mass media ethics is not good. Rather, "the ethical considerations must be judged in the touchstone of concerning society and its social cultural inheritance" (Adhikary "Mass Media Ethics"). And, this will certainly bring fruitful consequences: "Understanding one's own ethical texts and one's own ethical underpinnings will establish a foundation through which communication problems can be explored and solutions can be delivered" (Babbili 173).

In recent years, Nepal has witnessed advancement in the field of mass media and journalism. Significant achievements can be located with respect to media as a profession or as an industry. Likewise, Mass Communication and Journalism or Media Studies has been incorporated as an applauded discipline of knowledge in the academy. Media ethics or journalistic ethics also has been included in the curricula. However, just as "modern communication technology has been introduced without evolving a communication philosophy, approach and policy relevant to Nepali context, conditions and needs" (Adhikary “Exploring New Paradigm” 58), the trend of studying media ethics does not seem quite enthusiastic. Just to copy and paste the Western concept of ethics as if it is a universal concept and doing nothing to understand native ethical idea is not the situation of pride. This is really annoying situation because "A society that ignores its own ethical ideal does it at its own peril" (Babbili 163).

Since mass media professionals and their community are inextricably bound together, the ethical questions of particular professional communicator must be judged against the social cultural background of the society for which the medium is aiming to work. What I am emphasizing is that ethical concern in the field of mass media including journalism is relative to the Dharma or religious faith[1] and philosophical stand-point taken by the media professionals.

Certainly, there are views denying ethics as relative or subjective and holding that ethics is "entirely independent of religion" (Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics 3) and "ethical judgments must be made from a universal point of view" (Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics 12). But we cannot ignore the very fact that the concept of ethics is inherently different in the Hindu perspective and in the West. "In the Hindu perspective, problems of ethics are treated in a distinct way" (Babbili, Anantha 147), which is different that of the West.

Hindu dharma gives outstanding importance to ethics. "Ethical perfection is the first step towards divine knowledge" (Radhakrishnan. India Philosophy. Vol I. 52). It should be very clear, in the very beginning, that Hinduism, being "doctrinally more open" (Harrison-Barbet 276), should not be considered entailing one and only standard set of ethical principles. Vedic Hinduism "comprises many diverse schools of thought. It incorporates various views, from extreme spiritual to extreme materialistic" (Adhikary Exploring New Paradigm 64). Since the Vedic Hindu philosophical tradition is extensive, rich, and complex, "it would be irrational to declare only one set of ethical guidelines as 'Vedic Hindu ethics'. Rather, we should consider that each philosophy suggests unique set of ethical guidelines. Thus it becomes individual matter to which philosophy you associate yourself"(Adhikary10).

Clearly, there is scope for different, even diverse, sets of ethical principles. As Hindery observes, "Hindu ethics is itself both diachronically and synchronically (past and present) pluralistic" (Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions 10).

However, Hindu philosophers, Rishis, Munis have always emphasized a synthesis of various schools of thought. There is "the Vedic tradition of direct experience of an all-comprehensive oneness in the midst of plurality" (Bhattacharya, Sibajiban. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 3). And, "except a few systems upholding gross materialism and hedonism, all the systems prescribe a code of moral discipline to uplift man from animality or brutality to humanity" Shastri, Dinesh Chandra Bhattacharya. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 92).

Since "Ethical questions are not concerned with what one would do (an essentially psychological concern) but what one ought to do" (Velasquez, Manuel and Vincent Barry 315) there should be external authority. Most Hindu ethical teachings are found in various texts from Veda to Upanishads, Puranas to Ramayana and Mahabharata, and even in poetics. "To reach the people, ethical philosophy or dharma(s) would have to be communicated in the forms of poetry, rhythm, song, dance and, most of all, in ... the figure of the 'ideal model person'" (Hindery 98).

Thus ethics for Hindus "stem from the basic Hindu religious texts that are often considered cultural and philosophical texts" (Babbili 156). Hindu ethics "appear most often as subtle manifestations of human conduct in the narrative of prominent cultural and religious texts, traditions and customs" (Babbili 158). A person of Hindu society is obligatory to follow the guidelines given by those Shastras, traditions and customs.

The Vedic scriptures contain sentences enjoining what is or is not to be done (Mohanty 22). Vedas are "creation of an age anterior to our intellectual philosophies" (Sri Aurobindo 10). They are considered "to be the truths heard (Shruti) or, in an inside-out sense, revealed. Not 'revealed' in the sense of divine, outside intervention, they were ... inwardly inspired" (Hindery, Roderick. Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions 39). Believers hold that "There is no substitute of Vedas, insofar as the code of human behavior and conduct is concerned" (Mahatma Gopal Swami Saraswati. Human Rights and The Vedas 55).

The mainstream philosophies that directly follow the Vedas tradition include:
1. Mimamsa (with sub-schools including Kumaril Bhatta's)
2. Vedanta (with sub-schools including Shakaracharya's)
3. Vaisheshika
4. Nyaya
5. Samkhya
6. Yoga

Mimamsa is "claimed to have a more authentic grip on the Vedas" (Mohanty, J.N. Explorations in Philosophy 64). "The beginnings of the Mimamsa may be traced to the Veda itself, where it is used to denote doubt and discussion regarding the rules of ritual and doctrine" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 374). The aim of the Mimamsa
is to ascertain the nature of dharma. Dharma is not a physical existent, and so it cannot be apprehended through the senses. The other pramanas are of no use, since they all presuppose the work of perception. Perception, inference and such other sources of knowledge have nothing to say on the point that the performer of the Agnistoma sacrifice will go to heaven. This knowledge is derived only from the Vedas. Though the pramana of the Veda is the only source of our knowledge of dharma, the others are considered, since it is necessary to show that they cannot give rise to a knowledge of dharma. They are also found useful in repudiating wrong views (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 387-388).

The Mimamsa and Vedanta philosophies are so closely related that the former is called Purva Mimamsa and the latter Uttara Mimamsa. They take "the Vedas to be exclusive and eternal guides of human destiny (Shastra)" (Pandeya, R.C. "Pramana-Centricity" 47). Both present
only an account of what the Vedas say, hence their purpose is solely to enquire into Dharma or Brahman part of the Veda (athato-Dharma-jijnasa or athato-Brahma-jijnasa). In all matters of dispute or difference of opinion the court of final appeal is the Veda itself. They, therefore, hold Shruti as the final authority; reasoning, perception, etc. have therefore assumed auxiliary status as aids to strengthen or clarify the Vedic position. These two Mimamsas endeavor at any cost to show that there is nothing other than the Vedas which could be evidence or Pramana in all matters of human life (Pandeya, R.C. "Pramana-Centricity" 47).

The Veda is the final and supreme authority for both the Purva and the Uttara Mimamsas. "Their conviction is that in respect of super-sense truths and realities, which are not knowable by perception and even by inference, the only source of knowledge is the Shruti or the Vedas whose validity as a pramana is axiomatic (svatahsiddha)" (Shastri, Dinesh Chandra Bhattacharya. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 87). However,
their difference lies in the aspects of the Veda chosen for consideration. In the former case the subject of preferred treatment is human conduct for the guidance of which the Veda provides evidence. In the latter case the nature of existence is a matter of investigation and the Veda is taken to be final authority (Pandeya, R.C. "Pramana-Centricity" 47).

In fact, "The dichotomy between the empirical and the transcendental, the transitory and the eternal, the worldly and the divine is the recurring theme in Hindu religio-philosophical scriptures" (Sinari, Ramakant. "The Worldly and the Transcendental in Indian Philosophy" 62). Particularly in case of worldly matters, Mimamsa is preferred over Vedanta. The influence of Mimamsa is such that there is the saying, 'vyavahare bhattanayah', that is the Bhatta Mimamsa School is the authentic one, even for the Vedanta, including Advaita Vedanta, in case of vyavaharika (secular) matters (R. Balasuramanian 24).

The importance of Mimamsa "for the Hindu religion is great. The scriptures which govern the daily life of the Hindu require to be interpreted in accordance with the Mimamsa rules. Modern Hindu law is considerably influenced by the Mimamsa system" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 375-376).

For ensuring "the proper understanding of Vedic texts" Mimamsa philosophy "has developed an elaborate and rigorous method of interpretation. This method of interpretation is applicable to not merely the Vedic texts but also Dharmashastra and legal texts" (Bhattacharya, Sibajiban. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 11).

"The Mimamsa has a well-developed and interesting account of how ethics and the human character are interrelated" and "it analyzes ethical language in terms of our possibilities to act in particular ways" (Leaman, Oliver. Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy 112). Though Manusmriti "is the most often quoted 'source book' of Hindu ethics" (Hammer, Raymond. "Karma and Dharma: Hindu Ethics" 190) Mimamsa is crucial in this regard because Hindu ethics is related with the Dharma and "the avowed aim of the Purva Mimamsa is to examine the nature of dharma" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 375).
Dharma is the scheme of right living. Jaimini defines dharma as an ordinance or command. Chodana, or injunction, is the lakshana or sign of dharma. It is the jurist's definition of law. According to Sabara, chodana denotes utterances which impel men to action. The 'ought' has an external source, since duties are revealed to us by a power not ourselves. The word 'chodana' has another meaning, namely, inspiration or impulsion from within. What appeals to heart within agress with what is commanded from without. The individual's will and the verdict of the race agreee. ...
The ethics of the Purva Mimamsa is founded on revelation. The Vedic injunctions lay down the details of dharma. Good action, according to the Mimamsaka, is what is prescribed by the Veda. (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 417-418).

If any scripture is in conflict with the Veda, then such scripture is to be disregarded and the Vedic point of view is to be considered (Adhikary Mimamsa-Darshan Nirdeshan 11-12). To be ethical, one must abide by the 'chodana' of Veda. So Mimamsakas accept Smriti texts only to the extent they are in accordance with the Shruti. "Next to the Smritis is the practice of good men or custom" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 418). By all means, Mimamsa insists that the life of a human being has to be governed by the rules of the Vedas. In accordance, Manusmriti says: "The whole Veda is the first source of the sacred law, next the tradition and the virtuous conduct of those who know the (Veda further), also the customs of holy men, and (finally) self-satisfaction" (Manusmriti II.6. Trans. taken from Hindery 76).

"Ethics during the Vedic period espoused obedience to divine law: Rita" (Babbili 158). Etymologically, Rita is "related both to rite and right" and "refers variously to order at three levels: 1. nature (cosmic order), 2. sacrificial or ritual order, and 3. the order of human conduct" (Hindery, Roderick. Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions 50).

Turning to the ethics of the Rig-Veda,
we find that the conception of Rita is of great significance. It is the anticipation of the law of karma ... It is the law which pervades the whole world, which all gods and men must obey. ...
Rita furnishes us with a standard of morality. It is the universal essence of things. It is the satya or the truth of things. Disorder or An-Rita is falsehood, the opposite of truth. The good are those who follow the path of Rita, the true and the ordered. Ordered conduct is called a true vrata. Vratani are the ways of life of good men who follow the path of Rita. Consistency is the central feature of a good life. The good man of the Vedas does not alter his ways. ... When ritual grew in importance, Rita became a synonym for yajna or sacrificial ceremony (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol I. 109-110).

The term Rita was succeeded by dharma "in the later Vedic Age connoting the same meaning" (Zaehner, R.C. Hinduism 30). In contemporary Hindu society, "ethics cannot be understood without locating them in a broad definition of religion" (Babbili 154). Here, "religion, esthetics and ethics have remained better integrated" (Hindery, Roderick. Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions 9). It is relevant to take the note that the major element of Hindu ethics developed in the Gita, too, is the concept of dharma (Babbili 161).

The dharma in the Vedic Hindu context should be understood at its proper sense. "Among its more general meanings, dharma also refers to a whole way of life rather than to mere doctrines or moral teachings alone" (Hindery, Roderick. Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions 50). The underlying central idea of dharma is
that a human being though a creature of the evolutionary process, is distinguished from other animal species by their endowment of reflective capacity which enables them to discriminate between the Good and the Evil. ... Humans can exercise their free-will in choosing the right against wrong. In other words, dharma postulates that humans possess general moral sense.
As the idea of moral choices inherent in the concept of dharma, the term dharma may be understood as representing the moral principle which lends human life its worth and makes for the meaningfulness of the system that has been evolved to support human life (Rai, Lal Deosa. Human Rights in the Hindu-Buddhist Tradition 51).

Religion here "is not dogmatic. It is a rational synthesis which goes on gathering into itself new conceptions as philosophy progresses. It is experimental and provisional in its nature, attempting to keep pace with the progress of thought" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol I. 25). "The supremacy of religion and of social tradition in life does not hamper the free pursuit of philosophy" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol I. 27).

Vedas do not advocate any religion, in the sense, the English word of Latin-origin, religion, is understood in modern parlance. But
they do point out 'dharma' meaning duties and essential characteristics, without which a thing cannot retain its very existence. Religion may be a personal affair owing its allegiance to personal beliefs and convictions of a person, but 'dharma' is a universal affair. ... Righteous people, adhering to Vedas, therefore, consider the whole world as one family. Vedas expect every human being to be humane in true sense and thus advocate 'humanism' as the dharma of entire humanity. 'Be humane and humanize others'; this is clarion call of the Vedas since eternity (Mahatma Gopal Swami Saraswati. Human Rights and The Vedas 55-56).

It is in this light a typical dharmik Hindu thinks,
Religion has been pervading human life from times immemorial. Every tiny act that a man does is looked upon from a religious point of view. All human institutions are more or less based on religious sentiments. It is one of the most undeniable facts of psychology that an average man can as little exist without a religious element of some kind as a fish without water (Swami Vidyananda Saraswati. Vedic Concept of God 32).

The dharma of Mimamsa is always associated with the karma. "Karma(n) is a Sanskrit word meaning simply 'act', 'deed', or 'work'. The 'theory' of karma, if we may call it such, is that every action must produce its inevitable 'fruit'; good actions produce good fruit, evil actions evil fruit" (Zaehner, R.C. "Introduction." Hindu Scriptures. xv-xvi). The importance given to karma by Mimamsa can be assessed from Mimamsa's belief that the law of karma can function on its own even in the absence of God (R. Balasuramanian 19). The karmayoga is the essence of Mimamsa philosophy which holds that "when duty is performed in a spirit of dedication to God it becomes the cause of emancipation" (Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. 420). "Morality, fair play, ethics and justice are the basis of karma yoga" (Krishnamurthy, V. Essentials of Hinduism 82).
Ethics in Hindu society is not detached from the dharma. ... Hindu ethics consists a highly refined moral sensibility visualized with standards of character and conduct. Hindu classical philosophers often think about ethics in connection with the notion of karma, and reincarnation. Since, on the presumption of karma, the nature of one's deeds determines one's future state, the universe includes laws of moral payback (Adhikary "Exploring New Paradigm" 66).
Obviously, an ideal Hindu is supposed to follow "without question the universal law of dharma and the particular law of karma" (Babbili 162).

"The freedom of the human individual is assumed, though the limitations of karma are mentioned" (Radhakrishnan, S. Ed. The Principal Upanisads 105). "Right and wrong are determined in four ways: through the authoritative scriptures, through the other inspired writings, through good conduct and through conscience" (Raymond Hammer 190). "The context is significant in deciding how to act, according to the Gita" (Leaman, Oliver. Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings 135). "The ethical individual is required to become like a child. The perfect man is a divine child, accepting the divine play, without fear or reserve, care or grief, in utter purity" (Radhakrishnan, S. Ed. The Principal Upanisads 111). Perhaps it is in such stage when a person becomes able to experience the dharma of the good which is within the heart of every person.

It is argued that "The duties of Hindu ethical life consisted primarily of the prescribed caste-duties and the specific duties of the different stages of life" (Leaman, Oliver. Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings 133-134). However, "Hindu ethics is not absolutist and unbending, but is reflective and contextual in its approach to ethical problems" (Babbili 163). Moreover, "The scope of Hindu ethics not only covers human beings, but also extends far more. For instance, the Srimadbhagavat says that since animals are capable of experiencing pain, humans have an obligation not to harm them" (Adhikary Studying Mass Media Ethics 10).

Studying mass media ethics from Mimamsa-philosophical perspective should not be viewed mere theoretical endeavor. In Hindu society, "Philosophy was never conceived as a merely theoretical exercise for the sake of conceptual clarity," rather with "a practical aim to achieve" (Bhattacharya, Sibajiban. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 4). Vedic Hindu philosophies "subscribe to the view of the unity of theory and practice" (Balasubramanian, R. "Advaita Vedanta: Its Unity with Other Systems and Its Contemporary Relevance" 16).

In Bharatavarsha, "the Philosopher did not merely think Philosophy and talk Philosophy but also lived Philosophy. The truths of Philosophy were sought to be translated into living experiences by strenuous moral and spiritual exertions" (Sen, Biswanath. "Nyaya View of Perception of Composite Objectives" 75). "All the systems agree that knowledge and action are intimately connected" (Sen, Biswanath. "Nyaya View of Perception of Composite Objectives" 77). That is why the Vedic Hindu mind "constantly engaged in theorizing about practice" (Mohanty 25).

In Bharatavarsha "darshana (philosophy) has a tradition of totality and integralism. The instruction of preceptors and systems of vision combine rational investigation, logic and epistemology in a fuller acceptance of life" (Das, Maya. "Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 93). Hindu philosophies
basically represent 'a way of life', an approach to spiritual realization rather than a mere 'view of life'. The approach makes the philosophical systems both humanistic and scientific, practical and theoretical. Correlating vision and sadhana the systems lead to a correct 'way of thinking' as well as 'a right way of living' (Das, Maya. "Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today" 93).

As to Kautilya, philosophy has its practical use: "it does good to mankind, makes one's intelligence, buddhi, settled in the midst of pleasure and pain and makes one expert, visarada, in wisdom (prajna), in speech (vakya) and in action (kriya)" (Mohanty 21). There must be insistence "on justifying philosophy in terms of Prayojana or practical utility" (Das, Maya 94). Thus, developing a code of ethics for journalists and other media professionals based particularly on Mimamsa philosophy seems not only rational, it also seems in coherence with the practical nature of Mimamsa.


Works Cited

Adhikary, Nirmala Mani. "Exploring New Paradigm in Mass Media Ethics." MBM Anthology of Media Studies. Kathmandu: CSC, Madan Bhandari Memorial College, 2007. 57-72.
---. "Mass Media Ethics." Space Time Today 18 March 2003.
---. Mimamsa-Darshan Nirdeshan. Kathmandu: Prashanti Pustak Bhandar, 2006 (2062 B.S.).
---. Studying Mass Media Ethics. Kathmandu: Prashanti Pustak Bhandar, 2006.
Babbili, Anantha. "Culture, Ethics, and Burdens of History: Understanding the Communication Ethos in India." Critical Issues in Communication. Eds. Srinivas R. Melkote and Sandhya Rao. New Delhi: Sage, 2001. 144-176.
Balasubramanian, R. "Advaita Vedanta: Its Unity with Other Systems and Its Contemporary Relevance." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture: Calcutta, 1990. 15-34.
Bhattacharya, Sibajiban. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Calcutta, 1990. 1-14.
Das, Maya. "Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Calcutta, 1990. 93-98.
Hammer, Raymond. "Karma and Dharma: Hindu Ethics." The World Religions. Eds. R. Pieree Beaver et al. Oxford: Lion Publishing, 1994.
Harrison-Barbet, Anthony. Mastering Philosophy. London: Macmillan, 1990.
Hindery, Roderick. Comparative Ethics in Hindu and Buddhist Traditions. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass Publishers, 2004.
Krishnamurthy, V. Essentials of Hinduism. New Delhi: Narosa Publishing House, 1989.
Leaman, Oliver. Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings. London: Routledge, 2004.
Leaman, Oliver. Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy. London: Routledge, 2004.
Mohanty, J.N. Explorations in Philosophy. Vol. I. Ed. Bina Gupta. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001.
Pandeya, R.C. "Pramana-Centricity." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Calcutta, 1990. 46-52.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol I. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
---. Indian Philosophy. Vol II. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1999.
---. Ed. The Principal Upanisads. New Delhi: INDUS, 1996.
Rai, Lal Deosa. Human Rights in the Hindu-Buddhist Tradition. Jaipur: Nirala Publications, 1995.
Saraswati, Mahatma Gopal Swami. Human Rights and The Vedas. New Delhi: Siddharth and Milan, 2001.
Saraswati, Swami Vidyananda. Vedic Concept of God. Delhi: Vijayakumar Govindaram Hasananda, 2001.
Sen, Biswanath. "Nyaya View of Perception of Composite Objectives." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Calcutta, 1990. 75-85.
Shastri, Dinesh Chandra Bhattacharya. "The Indian Philosophical Systems: Their Basic Unity and Relevance Today." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Calcutta, 1990. 86-98.
Sinari, Ramakant. "The Worldly and The Transcendental in Indian Philosophy." Indian Philosophical Systems. The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. Calcutta, 1990. 57-74.
Singer, Peter. Practical Ethics. 2nd ed. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Sri Aurobindo. The Secret of the Veda. Pondicherry: Sri Aurobindo Ashram, 1998.
Velasquez, Manuel and Vincent Barry. Philosophy. 3rd ed. Belmont: Wadsworth, 1988.
Zaehner, R.C. Hinduism. New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1966.
---. Hindu Scriptures. London: Everyman Publishers, 1992.

[1] Some readers may associate the Dharma here with the religious faith. However, my preference generally is to distinguish between Dharma and religion. I am convinced that the word Dharma can not be translated into English.

FIRST PUBLISHED IN Bodhi (Vol. I, No. 1, 2007), a journal published by the Department of Languages and Mass Communication, Kathmandu University.

SANCHARYOGA: VERBAL COMMUNICATION AS A MEANS FOR ATTAINING MOKSHA

The present research examines whether the process of communication (Sanchar) can be accepted as yoga provided that the process of communication in general and the process of verbal communication in particular, as envisioned in Hindu perspective, qualifies as a means for the attainment of Moksha.

The general objective here is to study the verbal communication process as a means for attaining Moksha and examining it as Sancharyoga in the same sense as in Karmayoga, Jnanayoga and Bhaktiyoga. The specific objectives include describing the verbal communication process from Hindu point of view, and understanding how verbal communication leads human being to Moksha, and also examining whether Sanchar could be considered as a kind of yoga.

Hinduism has not only set Moksha as the highest of purushartha chatustaya (four goals of human life), it is believed to assure all humans of equal rights for the attainment. Since humans are of different natures Hinduism has incorporated different paths for Mumukshus (Moksha-seekers). Based on those different paths, a number of yogas have been introduced. For instance, Karmayoga, Jnanayoga and Bhaktiyoga are renowned modes for the pursuit of Moksha.

Sanchar, originally a Sanskrit word with number of meanings including the one equivalent to what is understood as the communication in modern sense, has been envisioned uniquely in Hindu perspective. The verbal communication process from Hindu perspective, as understood with the help of the Sadharanikaran model, qualifies not only as a process of perfect human communication in worldly setting but also as a means for attaining Moksha-in-life. Moksha is highest attainment of human; Moksha is not just a theoretical concept; and Moksha can be attained even during the life. The process of verbal communication qualifies as a means for attaining Moksha no matter how it is the Shabda Brahman or the Shabda pramana. In either case the Vak or Shabda verily is the Supreme Brahman. Thus Sancharshastra ultimately becomes a Mokshashastra and the discipline of communication a kind of vidya (true knowledge).The process of communication (Sanchar) can be accepted as a kind yoga provided the process results in the attainment of Moksha. As Hinduism has set Moksha as the highest of purushartha chatustaya (four goals of human life) and has introduced different paths, that is, different kinds of yoga, for the attainment of Moksha, the Sancharyoga is an added path in this tradition. Thus Sancharyoga is a kind of yoga wherein the suffix represents the same as in Karmayoga, Jnanayoga and Bhaktiyoga.

Nirmala Mani Adhikary

Globalization, Mass Media and Cultural Intrusion: Nepali Perspective

– Nirmala Mani Adhikary

Globalization has become a unidirectional gateway to American and Indian mass media entering Nepal. The flow of information from super-power United States and regional-power India to Nepal is contributing to impose foreign values and for cultural invasion over Nepal.

The impact of globalization on Nepalese society could be analyzed with regards to diverse fields such as culture, economy, politics, policies, media, etc. In general, this essay is confined to analyze the role of mass media as the means of making Nepal the target of 'cultural globalization.' In particular, it is focused to analyze the role of the mass media of super-power United States and regional-power India for cultural invasion over Nepal. The connection between international power relations and the media in the process of globalization has been considered here.

Globalization: unidirectional gateway

Globalization has been defined as "the 'name' that is often used to designate the power relations, practices and technologies that characterize, and have helped bring into being, the contemporary world" (Schirato and Webb 1). Apart from economical and technological aspect, the term has been widened to include "broader cultural, political and environmental dimensions" (IMF 2) as well. Even there is claim that "it has become a new religion of both modern and post-modern societies on this planet" (Bhattachan 81). There seems no hard and fast rule or any widely accepted recipe to define the term. Some view the meaning of globalization as "less than precise" (Schirato and Webb 1) and, for others, "there is nothing mysterious about globalization" and it has extended "beyond national borders" (IMF 2).

Whether one likes or dislikes the phenomenon, "it seems everyone has a stake in its meaning, and is affected by its discourses and practices" (Schirato and Webb 2). It is true in case of Nepal too, especially after the restoration of democracy in 1990. "The democratically elected governments of Nepal since 1990 also encouraged the process of globalization" (Dahal 56). The present condition, as one Nepalese sociologist observes, is such that "the fever of 'globalization' has caught up Nepalese policy makers, planners, political leaders, intellectuals, academia, media people, and layman alike" (Bhattachan 80).

Just like in the case of defining globalization there are contrasting views regarding the impact as well. Both the views, globalization as a process that is being considered beneficial, inevitable and irreversible vis-à-vis being regarded "with hostility, even fear, believing that it increases inequality within and between nations, threatens employment and living standards and thwarts social progress" (IMF 1), have been recognized. From Nepalese point of view, "Globalization is taking place not on terms of equality of nations, but is based on relations of dominance of a few and the subordination of the many" (Acharya 26). It has been observed as 'monopoly' that is manifested "in terms of the market economy wedded with liberal democracy, high-technology and media revolution" (Bhattachan 81). Even straightly, "the universal process of globalization" is "commonly understood in Nepal as 'Americanization' or 'Westernization' (imposition or adoption of Western culture, values and life style eroding the indigenous ones)" (Dahal 57).
The issue of 'monopoly' in the context of media has direct concern with the doctrine of 'free flow of information.' "Developed by the United States and other Western nations after World War II," the doctrine has been considered by supporters as "a means of promoting peace and understanding and spreading technical advances" (MacBride and Roach 287). The critics have recognized as accompanying "the international expansion of American power" and complementing "the related doctrine of the free flow of capital, commodities, and resources" (Mattelart and Mattelart 156-157). The doctrine has been even severely criticized, "Free flow is like a free fox among free chickens" (Schirato and Webb 176).
In such scenario, 'free flow of information' obviously becomes the 'mantra-at-the-ready' in the hands of powerful nations in order to dominate others. The communication flow, as some critics claim, "is one way, from the powerful nations to the weaker ones" (Vivian 425). In case of Nepal, the flow of information from different sources should be considered. The mass media of United States as well as of India have got entrance through the gateway of globalization, which is not bi-directional from the Nepalese point of view.

International power relations and media

The mass media play a crucial role in almost all aspects of daily life in these days. Because mass media could far exceed the reach of any previous interpersonal communication they are capable of instantaneously connecting virtually every human being. In 'global village', as Marshall McLuhan would term contemporary world, media are the largest focus of leisure time interest, providing the shared 'cultural environment' for most people and more so than any other single institution. They have been considered as the driving forces behind the cultural globalization.
Since the world is believed on the process of 'cultural globalization' with the media as the driving forces, a question of politics immediately raises. It is not simply a question of unequal distribution that some countries having more access to and control over media. It is that whether such access and control of some countries can undermine others' culture. The most fundamental question of society, concerning the distribution and exercise of power, turn on the understanding of the connection between international power relations and the media.
In "What Makes Mainstream Media Mainstream", Chomsky discusses that different media are doing different things, and argues that the 'elite' or 'agenda-setting' media (of US) are setting "a framework within which others operate." He observes that framework as "a reflection of obvious power structures." (Chomsky 20) In other words, "world patterns of communication flow, both in destiny and in direction, mirror the system of domination in the economic and political order." (Sinclair et al. 301) As Chomsky observes, no one, trying to break the mold, is going to last long. He further argues that the product of media won't be without the interest of the power systems around them. "If that wouldn't happen, it would be a kind of miracle." (Chomsky 22)
It is understandable, in this light, why most of the media would have a vested interest in the Capitalist system and would be inclined to give support to its most obvious defenders. It is not unlikely to assume the international media as the carriers of powerful nations' culture. Though it is debatable how much they would be successful actually to influence the audience it is clear that international media, at least, lead the world in their transportability across cultural boundaries. With reference to the "framework" observed by Chomsky, there is substantive ground to believe that American as well as Indian media have their obvious cause to support the 'monopoly' or 'power relations.'

Cultural imperialism paradigm:

The mass media constitute a primary source of definitions and images of social reality and the most ubiquitous expression of shared identity. The reality we confront these days is, in fact, "mediated" reality. Since the sociological significance of media extends beyond the content of media messages their influence is not limited to what we know. They are the domains where "the central problem of today's global interactions" that is "the tension between cultural homogenization and cultural heterogenization" (Appadurai 324) has to be dealt. So there are differing views with respect to the question of a global culture.
Herbert Schiller, in Mass Communications and American Empire, has criticized the Western-controlled international mass media preempting native culture, a situation he sees as robbery, just like the earlier colonial tapping of natural resources to enrich the colonizers. He argues that the one-way communication flow is especially insidious (Vivian 425). Schiller, while analyzing the connection between international power relations and the media, propounds the thesis of cultural imperialism, or more particularly media imperialism.
Those who believe the concept of cultural homogenization would argue the phenomenon acting "as a universal solvent that will dissolve all cultural differences in a dull and colorless homogeneity throughout the world" (Lechner and Boli 283). Such line of thought would see information technology being used as "the tool to displace indigenous cultures for the benefit of global popular culture" (Subba and Uprety 144). However, there is another strand of the cultural globalization debate, which has the idea of cultural hybridization, that is, "the blending of foreign and local to make a new form" (Schirato and Webb 156).
Cultural imperialism paradigm has been dismissed by some critics as "a simplistic application of the now-discredited hypodermic needle model of mass communication" and some others like to see the phenomenon as "simply internationalism brought on by the ever more sophisticated media of mass communication" (Vivian 427). Sinclair, Jacka and Cunningham see the cultural imperialism discourse having serious inadequacies, both as theory and in terms of reality that the theory purported to explain. For them, the thesis was "based on quite incorrect assumption." They argue, "Actual transformation of the world television system made it less and less sustainable on the empirical level, and shifting theoretical paradigms, including postmodernism, postcolonialism, and theories of the 'active' audience, made its conceptual foundations less secure." Rather, "a trend toward greater regional exchanges" has been observed. (Sinclair et al. 302)
Lets take their claims of technology transfer and greater regional exchanges one by one. First, if we talk from technological aspect, there is nothing to deny that it is easier than ever to communicate because of technology. But it will be more difficult to societies like ours because one lacking technology or money to purchase or develop local technology be at a distinct disadvantage in global communication. Electronic colonialism, the dependency relationship established by the importation of technology, foreign produced software, along with engineers, technicians in short, and the wherewithal to direct and manage information resources, creates a real dilemma. It upsets natural, evolutionary development and socialization process. Clearly, Nepal is not in such a position to expect free flow of information truly and "domestic channels ... can neither thwart the invasion of airwaves, nor can they compete with them" (Subba and Uprety 144).

Second, even if there would be a trend toward greater regional exchanges, countries like Nepal would not be on safer side. Rather, there would be two fronts of the battle. The cultural invasion would be from world centers as well as regional centers. The regional centers would not be less worrisome because "for polities of smaller scale, there is always a fear of cultural absorption by polities of larger scale, especially those that are nearby" (Appadurai 324). Then, it is not the case of cultural imperialism paradigm being irrelevant; rather there is indication of the situation being more complex. Nepal's complaint today is not solely about cultural imperialism from United States but from India (and other places like Hong Kong) as well. Thus "the sword is a double-edged one with both Indian and global players effectively pushing the native traditions to the corner" (Subba and Uprety 145). Such situation does not deny cultural imperialism paradigm, rather it explores the need of multidimensional approach to the paradigm.
However, they have yet another point to criticize, "the cultural imperialism critique neglected the internal historical and social dynamics within the countries susceptible to their influence" (Sinclair et al. 303). Ideally, countries like Nepal, who are inheritor of civilization of millenniums history, should be capable of overcoming any cultural intrusion.

Cultural invasion by foreign media:

Three major conclusions could be drawn from above discussions. First, globalization has failed to rescue the 'free flow of information' being misused by powerful nations as mere curtail to hide their dominance. Thus the process has become unidirectional gateway to American and Indian mass media entering Nepal. Second, the connection between international power relations and the media is in such a way that international mass media, specifically American and Indian here, won't be free from the interest of the power systems around them. Third, the cultural imperialism paradigm propounded by Schiller is still relevant for analyzing Nepal's situation.
Now, it is to be analyzed whether the flow of information through American and Indian mass media is contributing to impose foreign values and for cultural invasion over Nepal. Clearly, this is the scope of mass media research, which is relatively new discipline in Nepal. The issue of foreign media's impact is even in less priority. Even one of the most significant and extensive researches done in Nepal, Mass Media and Democratization: A Country Study on Nepal (IIDS, 1996), did not incorporate the issue. However, the issue of cultural invasion from both Hollywood, or the West, and Bollywood, or India, has been matter of discourse.
Bhattachan has alleged globalization for promoting the 'West is the best' psyche and thereby contributing for "the rapid destruction of indigenous cultural systems through the process of homogenization." To prove that "the impact has been more intense and deep" he presents an example of Thakali youths speaking "English fluently but not their own mother tongue." Claims even extend to the extent that looking down upon their own traditional norms and values is common among those Nepalese "who have come in contact with Western norms and values through various media." (Bhattachan 89)
In one instance, Nepalese youth of Khumbu has been observed taking Terminator as his best film and Arnold Schwartzneger as his role model (Luger 41). Liechty has identified a new group of youth as 'teenagers' whom locals have not only perceived "with tastes in imported, Western 'English' music" and not going "for the (Nepali) folk songs" but also as "disobedient, likely to take drugs" and viewing 'blue' (pornographic) film (Liechty 180-181). Such emergence of "a category of antisocial, vulgar and potentially violent young males" (Liechty 182) is, perhaps, one of the most shocking impacts of globalization experienced by Nepalese society.
Taking foreign mass media as the primary source of definitions and images of social reality has contributed in shifting the entire value system of some people:
"These Nepalese people are discovering that individualism is good but communitarianism is bad; that Christianity is good but animism, Bon, Lamaism, Hinduism, and Buddhism are bad; drinking local beer (chyang and tongba) is bad but drinking Western beer is good; that riding car is good but walking/trekking is bad; and drinking water is bad but drinking Coca Cola is good." (Bhattachan 89-90)
One research conducted in 2003 revealed that Indian (Hindi) channels were Nepalese women's first choice for entertainment. Star Plus alone was the choice of 31.75% respondents. While they used to watch Nepal Television for one and half to two hours in a day, the time spent for watching Indian television was three-four hours daily. Hindi tele-serials were the most favored programs among the respondents except the newscast by Nepal Television at 8 pm (Asmita 27). The popularity of Kasauti Jindagi Ki, a tele-serial aired through Star Plus was found so popular that 64% respondents were watching it regularly. Kyon Ki Sas Bhi Kabhi Bahoo Thi (47.25%), Kahani Ghar Ghar Ki (47%) and Kahin Kisi Roj (37.75%) were also found very popular (Asmita 31-33).

Those serials were presenting extra-marital relations in one or another form, which 50.25% respondents had never seen and 28.5% respondents had seen rarely in Nepalese society. However, 36.5% respondents said that it was the 'story' because of which they like the serials. Thus they were fond of such affairs even being aware that extra-marital affairs were seen perverted in Nepalese society. As many as 15.25% respondents even admitted that television watching for them was like an addiction (Asmita 38-39). The research revealed the paradox that Jagriti, aired through Nepal Television, was 'most-admired' program but the respondents even preferred watching Hindi serials if they would be aired at the same time (Asmita 54).
Vinay Thakur, 38, a hairdresser at Bagbazar in Kathmandu, has considerable examples regarding the influence of Hindi movies and television shows. During an interview, he claimed that nearly all of his male customers use to ask him to make hairstyle just like a particular film star like Hritik Roshan, John Abraham, Shahrukh Khan, Salman Khan, etc. Contrastingly, his female customers are willing to imitate the stars of Hindi tele-serials rather than heroines of Hindi movies. He memorized no customer willing to imitate hairstyle of Nepalese film star, with an exception of Rajesh Hamal whose influence he had experienced some years ago.
Apart from Bollywood stars, Vinaya mentioned Hollywood stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Kate Winslet as another 'role model' of his customers. It was immediately after the success of Titanic movie. Such experiences can be associated with the Indian experience after introduction of Star TV carrying "lots of U.S.-originated programming" and the impact has been observed, "many Indians now dress like the Americans they see on 'Baywatch'" (Vivian 426) "I have to be watching movies. Otherwise, how I could be up-to-dated about newer hairstyles?" Vinaya admitted, "I don't understand English at all. But I have to (watch the movie)."
Lok Ratna Chitrakar, 29, clothes merchant by profession since generations, has experienced the media induced cultural globalization himself. According to Lok Ratna, he started to help his father when he was about 11. He remembers persuading his father to add new items such as pieces of Kurta-Salwar, typically popularized with the process of what he terms 'Indianization' during those days. Previously, they used to sell traditional Nepalese clothes including Hakupatasi, Gunyu-Cholo, Daura-Suruwal, etc. When he fully took the charge of the business at 19, he decided to sell jeans wears mainly. He had shifted his shop to New Road. With the change in 'trend', last year he withdrew jeans wear and opened a John Player's showroom. He has put a hoarding board outside the showroom with Hritik Roshan as the model. He has been just trying to cope with the shift in customers' clothes preference, Lok Ratna maintains. He considers media behind the shifts in clothes preference, "You know, when Rangeela movie was a hit, I sold hundreds of Rangeela cap."
The foreign media do not influence just in direct ways. Their insidious influence comes indirectly too. For instance, number of Nepalese movies has been identified as mere copy of Bollywood movies. Many of the programs aired through commercial FM stations hardly heard 'Nepali' though they are produced in Nepal. When Mahashivaratri and Valentines' day happened on the same day, "majority of RJs of commercial FM radios including Kantipur FM and Hits FM completely ignored Mahashivaratri" (Nirmal). The shift in cultural identity, at least those who claim being 'modern' is evident.
For critics, such evidence reveals the lack of guidelines for safeguarding national culture, and thereby putting the national security in danger:
"If a nation state's identity and its means of survival are determined by its traditions and culture, then Nepal has a lot to do before it can grapple with the prevailing situation. The irony is that a nation-state like Nepal depends heavily on their unique culture traditions to sustain their distinct identity. This is their first line of defense, so to say. Once their identity is undermined, their long-term chances for survival become scarce, because other forms of their defense mechanism are even less developed." (Subba and Uprety 144-145)

Conclusion:

The doctrine of 'free flow of information' seems becoming mere an instrument of domination in the hands of powerful nations. As the consequence, foreign media's influence as exporters of foreign culture is going on unobtrusively. Because media have their obvious cause to support the 'monopoly' or 'power relations' there seems sufficient ground that they tend to impose 'cultural homogenization.' American and Indian media could not be exception. As empirical evidences show, globalization has become a gateway to Western and Indian mass media to impose foreign values and for cultural invasion over Nepal. This has brought urgency to policies specifically designed to deal cultural globalization through mass media because the condition will remain so until Nepal could not utilize the gateway for two-way flow.



Works Cited:
Acharya, Meena. "Globalization Process and the Nepalese Economy." Impact of Globalization in Nepal. Ed. Madan K. Dahal. Kathmandu: NEFAS and FES, 2005. 26-47.
Appadurai, Arjun. "Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy." The Globalization Reader. Eds. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001. 322-330.
Asmita Mahila Prakashan Griha. Nepali Mahilaharuma Televisionko Prabhav. Kathmandu, 2003.
Bhattachan, Krishna B. "Globalization and Its Impact on Nepalese Society and Culture." Impact of Globalization in Nepal. Ed. Madan K. Dahal. Kathmandu: NEFAS and FES, 2005. 80-102.
Chomsky, Noam. "What Makes Mainstream Media Mainstream." You Are Being Lied To. Ed. Russ Kikc. New York: Disinformation, 2001. 20-24.
Dahal, Ram K. "Impact of Globalization on Nepalese Polity." Impact of Globalization in Nepal. Ed. Madan K. Dahal. Kathmandu: NEFAS and FES, 2005. 48-79.
IMF (International Monetary Fund). "Globalization: Threat or Opportunity." http://www.imf.org/external/np/exer/ib/2000/041200.htm accessed on August 7, 2006.
Lechner, Frank J. and John Boli (Eds). The Globalization Reader. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001.
Liechty, Mark. "Youth Identities and the Experience of Modernity in Kathmandu, Nepal." Youth Cultures A Cross-cultural Perspective. Eds. Vered Amit-Talai and Helena Wulff. New York: Routledge, 1995.
Luger, Kurt. Kids of Khumbu. Kathmandu: Mandala Book Point, 2000.
Mattelart, Armand and Michele Mattelart. Rethinking Media Theory: Signposts and New Directions. Trans. James A. Cohen and Marina Urquindi. Minneapolis MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1992.
MacBride, Sean and Colleen Roach. "The New International Information Order." The Globalization Reader. Eds. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001. 286-292.
Nirmal, Aayod Dhaumya. "Parampara Ra Parivartanko Dosandhma Mahashivaratri." Space Time Daily. Kathmandu, Falgun 25, 2058 B.S.
Schirato, Tony and Jean Webb. Understanding Globalization. London: SAGE, 2003.
Sinclair, John, Elizabeth Jacka, and Stuart Cunningham. "Peripheral Vision." The Globalization Reader. Eds. Frank J. Lechner and John Boli. Oxford: Blackwell, 2001. 301-306.
Subba, Phanindra and Hari Uprety. "Impact of Globalization: How to Resolve the Nepalese Security Dilemma." Impact of Globalization in Nepal. Ed. Madan K. Dahal. Kathmandu: NEFAS and FES, 2005. 124-152.
Vivian, John. The Media of Mass Communication (5th edition). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1999.